The International Indigenous Policy Journal

The Structure of Aboriginal Child Welfare in Canada

Vandna Sinha et al. — Mon, 13 May 2013 09:03:25 PDT

Aboriginal children are currently overrepresented in out-of-home care in Canada; this extends a historical pattern of child removal that began with the residential school system. The overrepresentation of Aboriginal children persists despite legislative and structural changes intended to reduce the number of Aboriginal children in care. Several recent developments suggest potential for improvement in services for Aboriginal children and families in the near future. However, greater information about the structure of Aboriginal child welfare in Canada is needed to support program and policy development. We present a broad overview of the variation in Aboriginal child welfare legislation and standards, service delivery models, and funding formulas across Canadian provinces and territories. We draw on this review to suggest specific priorities for future research.

Evaluation of Aboriginal Programs: What Place is Given to Participation and Cultural Sensitivity?

Steve Jacob et al. — Thu, 04 Apr 2013 07:56:16 PDT

Aboriginal populations in Northern Canada have, for many years, been confronted with socio-economic problems affecting their development. In the early 1990s, the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (1996) report concluded that it was important to integrate Aboriginal people into the management of public policies that concern them and to encourage their autonomy. In order to produce a quality evaluation that is useful in particular cultural contexts, measures have been developed to assure that the evaluation highly regards cultural sensitivity while integrating local participants in the evaluation process. This study, based on the systematic analysis of a non-probability sample of 27 program evaluation reports, presents an inventory of evaluation practice in Aboriginal contexts and estimates in what measure a culturally sensitive and participatory approach was applied. It was apparent that cultural sensitivity is gradually being integrated into Aboriginal program evaluation and that certain indicators show that there has been a positive evolution in this direction. Finally, the study shows an occasional recourse to participatory approaches, but this is not a strong tendency as systematically technocratic approaches are more broadly employed.

Guest Editorial

Rachel Eni — Wed, 13 Mar 2013 06:21:18 PDT

The current Special Edition of the Journal explores teen pregnancy and parenthood in Canadian First Nation and urban Aboriginal communities. Our better understanding of the factors associated with teen pregnancy in Aboriginal communities is essential to making improvements in health and wellness and in fostering the involvement of youth in community economic and cultural development.

First Nations Teenaged Female Lone Parent Families in Canada: Recognizing Family Diversity and the Importance of Networks of Care

Jacqueline M. Quinless — Wed, 13 Mar 2013 05:55:52 PDT

Using semi-custom data tabulations from the 2006 Census of Population, this article provides a brief statistical description of the socio-economic conditions of female First Nations teenaged lone parents aged 15 to 19 years in Canada. It examines existing formal and informal social and economic support systems available to First Nations lone mother families in multiple family households. These support systems where compared to First Nations lone mothers in single family households as a way to shed light on the varying degrees that informal networks of care may be available to First Nations lone mothers living on reserve, as compared to those living off reserve, who access varying degrees of support from extended family members for the care and nurturing of their children. Despite the dominant Westernized view of the negative impacts that teenaged lone parenting can have on women and their children, this article illustrates that there seems to be a culturally interrelated system, or “networks of care,” available to these women. Such networks of care often have been overlooked in research on lone parenting. There remains much diversity among Aboriginal lone parent families when one accounts for factors such as age of the parent, number of children, living on or off reserve, education, employment, and income. Therefore, the assumption that the social and economic disadvantage of becoming a teenaged lone parent will result in the same circumstances and place all teenaged lone parents at the same “disadvantage” is not necessarily accurate, at least in the First Nation context.

International Teen Reproductive Health and Development: The Canadian First Nations Context

Michelle M. Mann — Wed, 13 Mar 2013 05:55:49 PDT

Women’s well-being is dependent on access to reproductive health care. Around the world, however, many women do not have adequate access to this essential health service. Barriers to accessing reproductive health services are especially problematic for Canadian First Nations youth, especially those living in rural and remote communities. This article explores the unique challenges of and approaches to teen reproductive health and sustainable development internationally. The international context of reproductive health and sustainable development can inform and set the context for a discussion of Canadian First Nations teens’ reproductive health. Of special interest is how the United Nations and the international community approached sensitive issues and generated consensus among many different countries, cultures, religions, and customs.

Off Balance: Reflecting on the Economic Impacts of Pregnancy in Aboriginal Youth

Wanda Wuttunee — Wed, 13 Mar 2013 05:55:46 PDT

Many Aboriginal leaders are focused on holistic approaches to bring physical, mental, and spiritual health to their citizens, allowing them to participate fully in a community’s future. However, teen pregnancy brings specific challenges that need to be addressed if, indeed, children are the future of Aboriginal communities. This commentary looks at how the tools of community economic development (CED) can be applied to move young parents into positions from which they can participate in local economies. CED can be used to address contributing factors to teen pregnancies that are supportive of youth and appropriate to the community in question. Young parents need support to develop the necessary independence and resilience. This brings challenges to community leadership to take steps to encourage the development of healthy sexuality and lifestyles, and to provide the needed education, training, and other community supports. If youth are the future of Aboriginal communities, the cost of ignoring young parents and their children is much too high to ignore.

The Socio-Economic Characteristics of First Nation Teen Mothers

Rochelle Garner et al. — Wed, 13 Mar 2013 05:55:42 PDT

Using data from the 2006 Census, this study examines the socio-economic characteristics of First Nations and non-Aboriginal teenage mothers, and compares these to those of non-teenage mothers in a cohort of women aged 25 to 29 years old. Results indicated that First Nations women were more likely than non-Aboriginal women to be teenage mothers. In general, teenage mothers were less likely to have graduated high school, more likely to live in overcrowded housing, and in a home in need of major repair. Furthermore, teenage mothers had lower household incomes after adjusting for the composition the household. Characteristics also differed significantly between First Nations and non-Aboriginal women, as well as between Registered Indian women living on- and off-reserve.

Socially Constructed Teen Motherhood: A Review

Marc Fonda et al. — Wed, 13 Mar 2013 05:55:38 PDT

This article reviews literature on the gradual construction of teenage pregnancy as a social issue in North America. It shows how teen motherhood emerged not as an issue unto itself, but as a microcosm of numerous, closely intertwined phenomena including: the evolution of Western views on human sexuality and gender roles; the place of religious values in society; and the emergence of various modern technologies, the social and medical sciences, and how such disciplines view childhood, motherhood, and women in society. In particular, it shows that even as teen pregnancy is today viewed primarily through public health and/or socioeconomic lenses, it has never been completely divorced from its original construction – as an indicator of failure to adhere to social, religious, and moral values. The article closes with an informal content analysis of several First Nations-related documents that highlight both similarities and differences to the non-Aboriginal perspective.

Voices from the Land: Reflections on Teenaged Pregnancy in Aboriginal Communities Today - The Voices of Traditional Healers

Delores Cardinal et al. — Wed, 13 Mar 2013 05:55:37 PDT

While the precarious state of Aboriginal health is often noted, and several studies have detailed the issues raised by teenage pregnancy, the voices from traditional healers, many of whom have to deal with the youth are scarcely recorded. These reflections are in response to the conversation of select traditional practitioners at The Gathering, held in the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, the University of Alberta, in October, 2010. They spent about one-and-a-half hours discussing the issue with health care professionals and physicians. This article reprises high points of that discussion along with additional material offered to support their contentions.

“And Then I Got Pregnant”: Early Childbearing and the First Nations Life Course

Martin Cooke — Wed, 13 Mar 2013 05:55:31 PDT

One of the characteristics of the life courses of Aboriginal youth is a greater likelihood of becoming a parent at young ages, at least relative to other youth. Young parenthood is often portrayed negatively, in terms of the implications for later education and employment. However, these effects depend greatly on the context of childbearing, including the sources of available support. In this paper we make use of exploratory qualitative life course interview data with a sample of First Nations living in Canadian cities to investigate the circumstances around early childbearing, including sources of support and strategies for managing this transition, its meaning from the perspective of parents themselves, and the potential implications for their later lives.

Potential Barriers to Aboriginal Teenaged Mothers' Access to Maternal and Parental Benefits

Jeremy Hull — Wed, 13 Mar 2013 05:55:27 PDT

This chapter uses available data to examine the ways in which federal and provincial maternity, maternal, or parental benefits are likely to receive less income than others because of their lower income and parental leave programs may have a differential impact on Aboriginal teen mothers as compared to other Canadian parents. This is done through analysis of the employment and income characteristics of Aboriginal teen mothers in relation to the benefits and eligibility criteria for maternity and parental leave programs. It is concluded that Aboriginal teen mothers are less able to receive these benefits because they are less likely than others to meet the minimum requirements for hours of insured employment. In addition, those Aboriginal teens who meet the qualifying employment levels may be unable to take advantage of parental benefit options open to couples because they are more likely to be lone parents. It is also found that the Quebec Parental Income Plan is more generous and flexible than those in other provinces and its provisions would be especially beneficial to Aboriginal teen mothers. Recommendations for further research are provided.

The Potential Impacts of Religion and Spirituality on First Nation Teenage Fertility

Marc Fonda — Wed, 13 Mar 2013 05:55:25 PDT

After reviewing some American research on the impacts religion has on adolescent sexual decision making and teenage pregnancy, this article considered the few instances of Canadian research addressing this topic. With this contextual information in place, it then moves on to report on analysis comparing the 2001 Census figures on religions declared by Canadian First Nation communities to teen fertility rates and the Community Well-Being Index (CWB). It finds that First Nations teen fertility rates are related to relative socio-economic deprivation, but also that religion has impacts on sexual decision making at the individual level and those First Nations communities showing no major religious adherence have teenage fertility rates of up to 140 per 1000, as compared to those communities showing one major tradition whose fertility rates are closer to 109 per 1000 adolescent First Nation women.

Teenage Pregnancy and Parenthood Perspectives of First Nation Women

Rachel Eni et al. — Wed, 13 Mar 2013 05:55:22 PDT

This paper summarizes a study that explored perspectives of Manitoba First Nation women on teenage pregnancy and parenthood. Data was derived through a qualitative methodology focusing on a life storytelling approach within a culturally informed framework and setting. The two main objectives of the study were to: (a) elucidate community perspectives on teenage pregnancy and parenting, and (b) understand their psychological, cultural, and socioeconomic causes and implications. The study was designed in consultation with staff and participants of the Manitoba First Nation Strengthening Families Maternal Child Health Program (SF-MCH). Through the storytelling technique, the women were able to practice or "work out" the unfolding of their personal relationships, past and present. Themes arose from the data that shed light upon women’s personal relationship experiences, meanings they ascribe to them, values, and aspirations for the future. The study included a participant engagement in policy development activity that had the women consider types of policies and programs to better support youth in First Nation communities.

The Physical and Mental Health of Off-Reserve First Nations Children of Teen Mothers

Anne Guèvremont et al. — Wed, 13 Mar 2013 05:55:16 PDT

The teen birth rate for First Nations women is higher than the teen birth rate for non-Aboriginal women. While associations between physical and behavioural outcomes have been examined in non-Aboriginal children with teen mothers, fewer studies have focused on First Nations children of teen mothers. This study uses data from the 2006 Aboriginal Children’s Survey to compare physical and mental health outcomes of 2- to 5-year-old off-reserve First Nations children of teenage and older mothers. There were few differences in physical health outcomes between off-reserve First Nations children of teen mothers and older mothers with the exception of dental health. However, for all of the mental health outcomes examined, child prosocial behaviours, emotional symptoms, inattention-hyperactivity, and conduct problems, scores were poorer for off-reserve First Nations children of teen mothers. Although the differences in prosocial and emotional problems were attributable to socio-economic factors, differences in child inattention-hyperactivity and conduct problems were not. Future research would help our understanding of the differences in outcomes between off-reserve First Nations children of teen and older mothers.

Introduction: Special Issue on Indigenous Early Parenthood

Marlene Brant Castellano — Wed, 13 Mar 2013 05:55:11 PDT

This introduction underscores many of the points raised and facts presented in the articles of this special edition of the International Indigenous Policy Journal on Indigenous Early Parenthood. It briefly mentions the interrelationship between economic deprivation and high fertility rates among Canada’s First Nations populations as well as the challenges and consequences of early parenting. While the authors may not make policy prescriptions, they emphasize the need for young parents and their children to receive the supports needed to help break the cycle of negative outcomes, which can be achieved through education, protection, and actualizing the value of ensuring that every child is a welcome and sacred gift.

A Critical Appraisal of Responses to Māori Offending

Juan Marcellus Tauri et al. — Mon, 10 Dec 2012 09:46:03 PST

This article critically analyses the role that criminological theory and specific policy formulations of culture play in New Zealand's state response to Māori crime. We begin by charting policy responses to the "Māori problem" during the 1980s to the 2000s, with a particular focus on policies and interventions based on theorising that Māori offending is attributable to loss of cultural identity, through to the current preference for risk factor and criminogenic needs approaches. The second part of the article critiques strategies employed by administrative criminologists who, in partnership with the policy sector, attempt to elevate their own epistemological constructions of Indigenous reality in the policy development process over that of Indigenous knowledge and responses to social harm.

Reconceptualizing Indigenous Parent Involvement in Early Educational Settings: Lessons from Native Hawaiian Preschool Families

Julie Kaomea — Mon, 10 Dec 2012 09:31:40 PST

Indigenous families are often perceived by teachers and school administrators as disinterested and uninvolved in their children’s education. This article aims to complicate that longstanding stereotype. A detailed, qualitative case study of two Native Hawaiian preschool families reveals compelling counterstories of Indigenous parents who are deeply concerned about their children’s education, but are limited in their family-school involvement by a range of (post)colonial, social, psychological, and economic challenges that make it difficult for them to engage with schools in conventional ways. The study raises awareness of the skillful resolve with which Indigenous families employ their limited resources to support their children’s education. It challenges educators and policy makers to imagine creative possibilities for drawing Indigenous families into collaborative activity with contemporary schools.

Traditional Knowledge: Considerations for Protecting Water in Ontario

Deborah McGregor — Mon, 03 Dec 2012 13:46:28 PST

In Canada, the water crisis increasingly felt around the world is being experienced primarily in small, usually Indigenous, communities. At the heart of this issue lies an ongoing struggle to have Indigenous voices heard in the decision-making processes that affect their lives, lands, and waters. As part of ancient systems of Traditional Knowledge (TK), Indigenous people bear the knowledge and the responsibility to care for the waters upon which they depend for survival. A series of internationally developed documents has supported Indigenous peoples’ calls for increased recognition of the importance of TK in resolving environmental crises, including those involving water. Ontario provincial and Canadian federal governments have been developing legislative and regulatory documents to help fend off further water-related catastrophes within their jurisdictions. Despite such efforts, a number of barriers to the successful and appropriate involvement of TK in water management remain. Based on years of community-based and policy-related research with First Nations people involved in water-related undertakings, this article highlights progress made to date, and provides Indigenous viewpoints on what further steps need to be taken. Key among these steps are the need to restore and maintain Indigenous access to traditional territories and ways of life, and the requirement for mutually respectful collaboration between TK and Western science.

Redistribution and Recognition: Assessing Alternative Frameworks for Aboriginal Policy in Canada

Robert Maciel et al. — Fri, 30 Nov 2012 09:36:23 PST

In this paper, we argue that government approaches to addressing the claims of Aboriginal peoples in Canada are insufficient. Historically, these approaches have focused on redistribution. At the same time, these approaches have all but ignored recognition. We argue that a more holistic approach that addresses both redistribution and recognition is necessary. Further, we attempt to show that our approach is consistent with the tenets of liberalism. By conceiving of Aboriginal politics as such, the state may be better able to address claims. We begin by providing a theoretical overview of redistribution and recognition, respectively. Then, we proceed to show how redistribution and recognition must work together in an adequate account of justice with respect to Aboriginal peoples in Canada. Finally, we offer a conception of Aboriginal politics that fulfills this desideratum, and integrates the principle of recognition and redistribution in a way that is within the bounds of liberalism.

Reflecting on the State of the IIPJ and the Condition of Indigenous Peoples Around the World

Jerry P. White — Thu, 29 Nov 2012 12:01:27 PST

As we come to the end of 2012, it is natural for the IIPJ contributors, readers, staff, and volunteers to reflect on the work of the Journal and on the reason we all contributed to that work. The year has been, by any standards, a real success. Yet, when we look worldwide, there is still much work to be done. Take, for example, the continuing gap in well-being; it is clear that there are some common problems across the more developed countries. Where efforts to create real partnerships between Indigenous peoples and governments have started, we hope they push forward. Where they have not, then they must start. May this upcoming year, 2013, be a year we look back on with pride for the accomplishments that occur.